Mustang — The Land of the Sky Caves
Mustang is a land of caves. Hidden within its cliffs are more than 10,000 man-made cave dwellings carved high into the mountainsides. Often referred to as the Sky Caves of Nepal, they remain one of the greatest archaeological mysteries of the Himalayas.
Over the past decades, archaeologists and researchers have explored many of these caves and made remarkable discoveries. Among them were partially mummified human remains and skeletons estimated to be between 2,000 and 3,000 years old.
Even more astonishing were the treasures found within: a collection of 55 wall paintings depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, ancient sculptures, manuscripts, and numerous artifacts dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries.
Despite extensive research, many questions remain unanswered. No one knows with certainty who originally carved these caves into the cliffs, how such an immense undertaking was accomplished, or what their original purpose was.
Some scholars believe they served as burial chambers. Others suggest they were used as homes, meditation retreats, places of refuge during times of conflict, or even entire cliffside settlements.
Today, the Sky Caves of Mustang stand as silent witnesses to a forgotten civilization, guarding secrets that have remained hidden in the Himalayan mountains for thousands of years.
HISTORY
Key Places
Key Places
For centuries, this place was considered “forbidden to visit” — wild and barren, relentlessly high-altitude, very sparsely populated, with scattered tiny villages, isolated Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, prehistoric sky caves, the kingdom of the snow leopard, the refuge of the legendary Yeti, and until recently, reconnected to the rest of the world by road!
To be precise, Mustang was actually known as the Kingdom of Lo and only became known as Upper Mustang after it ceased to be an independent kingdom.
The “fortified city” of Lo Manthang, the capital of Mustang, was built in 1380 and has survived almost unchanged to this day.
It is no surprise that stories of this isolated land beyond the Himalayas captured the romantic imagination of adventurous explorers. Tales of this hidden, mysterious kingdom and stories of the isolated “fortified city” of Lo Manthang at an altitude of about 3,810 m, ruled by a king from a royal palace, and of a medieval Tibetan Buddhist civilization reached the outside world only through yak caravans that dared to transport horses through these lands into India, laden with salt from the Tibetan Plateau, contributing to the creation of the “myths of Mustang.”
In 1795, Mustang was annexed by the Kingdom of Nepal and thus ceased to be an independent kingdom. Then, in 2008, Nepal became a republic, and with that Mustang ceased to be a kingdom.
The last official, and later unofficial, King of Mustang died in 2016.
The first “official” Western visitor was allowed into Mustang only in 1952, and probably the first Westerner who actually stayed in Lo Manthang did not arrive before 1964. Tourists were only permitted to visit Mustang in 1992, and only with a special permit, which is still required today to visit Mustang (except for the special permit area of Kagbeni, see section below).
But even in 1992, there were no roads in Mustang. Therefore, until the completion of the road to Lo Manthang in 2016, the only way to explore Mustang was on foot. Taking all of this together, it is not surprising that Mustang remains one of the most culturally preserved regions in the world.
Mustang is the only part of Nepal located “beyond” the Himalayas, on the Tibetan Plateau. As a result, the monsoon does not reach Mustang. In fact, rain is rare here, and the landscape is largely arid and barren. The lowest point in Mustang is at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level.
The culture of Mustang is distinctly Tibetan in every respect, whereas most of Nepal (though not all of it) is predominantly Hindu.
The entire population of the Mustang region is only about 14,000 people, mostly concentrated in numerous small traditional villages scattered along the main Kali Gandaki Valley, its side valleys, and the area around Lo Manthang. Even the “fortified city” of Lo Manthang, the capital of Mustang, has fewer than one thousand inhabitants.
The combination of high altitude, an arid and often very cold climate, and the extremely limited water supply necessary for sustaining human life and agriculture makes life here very difficult.
Reaching the legendary “fortified city” of Lo Manthang is the goal of everyone who visits Mustang. The capital of the former Kingdom of Mustang is indeed surrounded by walls, but it is a small and rather remote village, not a city. Lo Manthang itself contains only about 200 houses and around 880 residents, although the so-called rural municipality of Lo Manthang, which includes outlying settlements in the Lo Manthang Valley area, has a population of approximately 2,400 people.
Lo Manthang was founded in 1380 by the warrior Ame Pal. Around the same time, the walls surrounding the “city” were built, and they can still be seen today. In fact, Lo Manthang has changed very little in appearance since then.
Lo Manthang is situated at an elevation of 3,810 m above sea level. The former royal palace still survives, as do the four main temples: Jampa Lhakhang or Jampa Gompa, the oldest, built in the early 15th century and also known as the “House of God”; Thubchen Gompa, a huge red assembly hall and monastery built in the late 15th century and located southwest of Jampa Gompa; Chodey Gompa; and Choprang Gompa.
To be precise, Mustang was actually known as the Kingdom of Lo and only became known as Upper Mustang after it ceased to be an independent kingdom.
The “fortified city” of Lo Manthang, the capital of Mustang, was built in 1380 and has survived almost unchanged to this day.
It is no surprise that stories of this isolated land beyond the Himalayas captured the romantic imagination of adventurous explorers. Tales of this hidden, mysterious kingdom and stories of the isolated “fortified city” of Lo Manthang at an altitude of about 3,810 m, ruled by a king from a royal palace, and of a medieval Tibetan Buddhist civilization reached the outside world only through yak caravans that dared to transport horses through these lands into India, laden with salt from the Tibetan Plateau, contributing to the creation of the “myths of Mustang.”
In 1795, Mustang was annexed by the Kingdom of Nepal and thus ceased to be an independent kingdom. Then, in 2008, Nepal became a republic, and with that Mustang ceased to be a kingdom.
The last official, and later unofficial, King of Mustang died in 2016.
The first “official” Western visitor was allowed into Mustang only in 1952, and probably the first Westerner who actually stayed in Lo Manthang did not arrive before 1964. Tourists were only permitted to visit Mustang in 1992, and only with a special permit, which is still required today to visit Mustang (except for the special permit area of Kagbeni, see section below).
But even in 1992, there were no roads in Mustang. Therefore, until the completion of the road to Lo Manthang in 2016, the only way to explore Mustang was on foot. Taking all of this together, it is not surprising that Mustang remains one of the most culturally preserved regions in the world.
Mustang is the only part of Nepal located “beyond” the Himalayas, on the Tibetan Plateau. As a result, the monsoon does not reach Mustang. In fact, rain is rare here, and the landscape is largely arid and barren. The lowest point in Mustang is at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level.
The culture of Mustang is distinctly Tibetan in every respect, whereas most of Nepal (though not all of it) is predominantly Hindu.
The entire population of the Mustang region is only about 14,000 people, mostly concentrated in numerous small traditional villages scattered along the main Kali Gandaki Valley, its side valleys, and the area around Lo Manthang. Even the “fortified city” of Lo Manthang, the capital of Mustang, has fewer than one thousand inhabitants.
The combination of high altitude, an arid and often very cold climate, and the extremely limited water supply necessary for sustaining human life and agriculture makes life here very difficult.
Reaching the legendary “fortified city” of Lo Manthang is the goal of everyone who visits Mustang. The capital of the former Kingdom of Mustang is indeed surrounded by walls, but it is a small and rather remote village, not a city. Lo Manthang itself contains only about 200 houses and around 880 residents, although the so-called rural municipality of Lo Manthang, which includes outlying settlements in the Lo Manthang Valley area, has a population of approximately 2,400 people.
Lo Manthang was founded in 1380 by the warrior Ame Pal. Around the same time, the walls surrounding the “city” were built, and they can still be seen today. In fact, Lo Manthang has changed very little in appearance since then.
Lo Manthang is situated at an elevation of 3,810 m above sea level. The former royal palace still survives, as do the four main temples: Jampa Lhakhang or Jampa Gompa, the oldest, built in the early 15th century and also known as the “House of God”; Thubchen Gompa, a huge red assembly hall and monastery built in the late 15th century and located southwest of Jampa Gompa; Chodey Gompa; and Choprang Gompa.
Lower Mustang includes the region along the Kali Gandaki River — from Tukuche in the south to Kagbeni in the north. To the east, its boundary is formed by Muktinath and the Thorong La Pass, while to the west it is bordered by the Jungben La Pass leading to Chharka in Dolpo. These routes are part of the famous Annapurna Circuit Trek.
Special attention should be given to the village of Lubra and its community of Bon practitioners. It is located near the river to the east of the main route between Kagbeni and Jomsom and is also accessible from Muktinath.
Special attention should be given to the village of Lubra and its community of Bon practitioners. It is located near the river to the east of the main route between Kagbeni and Jomsom and is also accessible from Muktinath.
Although the territory of Mustang lies on the fringe of Western Tibet, its history is closely intertwined with the trans-Himalayan regions to the northwest of Lo Manthang. Therefore, a brief overview of the history of Western Tibet, and consequently the Kingdom of Guge, is relevant here. Some historical information about Tibet was recorded in the Dunhuang Chronicles, written by China's Tang Dynasty between 618 and 907 CE.
The foundation of the Kingdom of Guge, centered in the city of Tholing, began under one of the heirs of the Bon king Langdarma — Ö Sung (Namde Wosung). The great Buddhist reformation in Western Tibet began in the 11th century under King Khorre, better known as Lama Yeshe Ö. He was assisted by his famous translator Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055), whom he sent to India for study. Rinchen Zangpo is credited with founding 108 monasteries, some of which were located beyond Tibet, in present-day India. Monasteries such as Tholing and Tsaparang in Tibet, as well as Alchi and Tabo in India, have survived to the present day and are renowned for their Kashmiri-Newari frescoes. Similar artwork can also be found in some of Mustang’s caves. One of Rinchen Zangpo’s emissaries visited Mustang at the end of the 11th century.
In order to further spread Buddhism, Yeshe Ö invited another Indian master, Atisha (982–1054). According to legend, Yeshe Ö gave his life for this purpose: he was captured by raiders, and when his nephew gathered the ransom, the king instructed him to spend it not on his release but on inviting Atisha to Tibet. Atisha arrived from the Indian university of Nalanda to Tholing in 1042. He remained there for three years and, through his wisdom and compassion, helped revive Buddhism. In Tibet he founded the Kadampa school.
After Atisha came Marpa, who founded the Kagyupa school, emphasizing physical and mental meditation practices. His disciple Milarepa (1040–1123) became widely known throughout Tibet and Nepal for his solitary meditations in numerous caves, which are now revered throughout Tibet. The Kagyupa school spread across the country and beyond, into the northern Himalayan regions.
The foundation of the Kingdom of Guge, centered in the city of Tholing, began under one of the heirs of the Bon king Langdarma — Ö Sung (Namde Wosung). The great Buddhist reformation in Western Tibet began in the 11th century under King Khorre, better known as Lama Yeshe Ö. He was assisted by his famous translator Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055), whom he sent to India for study. Rinchen Zangpo is credited with founding 108 monasteries, some of which were located beyond Tibet, in present-day India. Monasteries such as Tholing and Tsaparang in Tibet, as well as Alchi and Tabo in India, have survived to the present day and are renowned for their Kashmiri-Newari frescoes. Similar artwork can also be found in some of Mustang’s caves. One of Rinchen Zangpo’s emissaries visited Mustang at the end of the 11th century.
In order to further spread Buddhism, Yeshe Ö invited another Indian master, Atisha (982–1054). According to legend, Yeshe Ö gave his life for this purpose: he was captured by raiders, and when his nephew gathered the ransom, the king instructed him to spend it not on his release but on inviting Atisha to Tibet. Atisha arrived from the Indian university of Nalanda to Tholing in 1042. He remained there for three years and, through his wisdom and compassion, helped revive Buddhism. In Tibet he founded the Kadampa school.
After Atisha came Marpa, who founded the Kagyupa school, emphasizing physical and mental meditation practices. His disciple Milarepa (1040–1123) became widely known throughout Tibet and Nepal for his solitary meditations in numerous caves, which are now revered throughout Tibet. The Kagyupa school spread across the country and beyond, into the northern Himalayan regions.
The history of Mustang is generally poorly documented and has been pieced together from manuscripts, texts, and religious writings. Certain writings known as Molla were used to identify specific local events. Much of the information about Mustang is contained within the history of the broader Guge region of Western Tibet and the neighboring, influential region of Ladakh.
Mustang is first mentioned in literature discovered in 652 CE in the Silk Road caves of Dunhuang, now in Gansu Province, China, north of Tibet. At that time, it formed part of the Yarlung Dynasty, which extended from Tibet into Central Asia. This was during the reign of Songtsen Gampo, who is regarded as the founder of Tibet.
In the 10th century, the Bon religion was on the rise throughout Tibet. The fall of the Bon king Langdarma marked the ascendancy of Buddhism in Tibet and, consequently, in Mustang. Later, the region was ruled by kings of the Korsum dynasty from Western Tibet, where the Kingdom of Guge soon emerged as a regional power.
The Kingdom of Guge consisted of three parts: Ladakh (Maryul), including Spiti; Guge proper; and Purang. Each part was controlled by one of Nyimagon's three sons. The Purang region extended eastward to Lo and Upper Mustang. Cultural, historical, and religious ties between Guge and Lo are evidenced by similarities in the art of Mentsi Lhakhang (near Chuksang) and that of Tholing, Tabo (Spiti), and Ladakh.
According to unclear sources, Muslim conquerors from South Turkestan, known as the Karakhanids, invaded the region in 1037.
By the end of the 11th century, following the golden age of Buddhist revival, references appear to the Menshang tribes, who were probably the principal local rulers of Mustang, although it still formally remained part of Guge. By the mid-12th century, another tribe, the Gungthang, had come to power. Sources also mention the Nubri tribes (from Lower Mustang and Manaslu) and Mangyul, who probably lived in the Kyirong area.
King Amepal (1388–1447) is considered the founder of modern Mustang (the land of the Lo people). Some scholars believe that his father, Chö Kyongbum, who conquered Purang, gained the allegiance of the Gungthang clans through his military skill. Others believe that it was Amepal himself who expanded Lo's authority into Purang and Guge. Under his rule, Mustang prospered through trade between Nepal and Tibet. With the growing influence of the Sakya-pa school in Tibet, Mustang also adopted this Buddhist tradition. He is believed to have laid the foundations of Lo Manthang in 1441.
The Kingdom of Guge survived for more than 600 years until 1630, when it was overthrown under mysterious circumstances. In 1624, the Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade entered Tsaparang from India via the Mana Pass. By 1626, a church had even been built there. However, in 1630, local lamas and Ladakhis overthrew the king, fearing “contamination” from the new religion. The kingdom never recovered from this blow.
Connections with Ladakh enriched Mustang's culture until 1768, when Prithvi Narayan Shah unified Nepal. The Raja of Mustang joined the new state but continued to rule autonomously. Mustang remained isolated from the rest of Nepal, while the Kali Gandaki Valley continued to serve as the most important trade route between India and Tibet.
In ancient times, a trade route passed through Mustang along which caravans carried salt and wool to India, returning with tea, rice, and handicrafts. The rulers of Lo imposed taxes on merchants and used the revenue to build monasteries in Lo Manthang, Tsarang, and Lo Gekar, attracting Newar craftsmen from Kathmandu and Buddhist scholars from Tibet and India.
After 1950, when Tibet fell, Khampa resistance fighters used the valleys of Mustang as bases, but left the region after King Birendra declared the “Zone of Peace” initiative. The land once again became a peaceful and restricted border territory. Unfortunately, the years of Maoist insurgency and unrest shook the country. In 2008, the last King of Mustang, Jigme Palbar Bista, abdicated his authority.
Mustang is first mentioned in literature discovered in 652 CE in the Silk Road caves of Dunhuang, now in Gansu Province, China, north of Tibet. At that time, it formed part of the Yarlung Dynasty, which extended from Tibet into Central Asia. This was during the reign of Songtsen Gampo, who is regarded as the founder of Tibet.
In the 10th century, the Bon religion was on the rise throughout Tibet. The fall of the Bon king Langdarma marked the ascendancy of Buddhism in Tibet and, consequently, in Mustang. Later, the region was ruled by kings of the Korsum dynasty from Western Tibet, where the Kingdom of Guge soon emerged as a regional power.
The Kingdom of Guge consisted of three parts: Ladakh (Maryul), including Spiti; Guge proper; and Purang. Each part was controlled by one of Nyimagon's three sons. The Purang region extended eastward to Lo and Upper Mustang. Cultural, historical, and religious ties between Guge and Lo are evidenced by similarities in the art of Mentsi Lhakhang (near Chuksang) and that of Tholing, Tabo (Spiti), and Ladakh.
According to unclear sources, Muslim conquerors from South Turkestan, known as the Karakhanids, invaded the region in 1037.
By the end of the 11th century, following the golden age of Buddhist revival, references appear to the Menshang tribes, who were probably the principal local rulers of Mustang, although it still formally remained part of Guge. By the mid-12th century, another tribe, the Gungthang, had come to power. Sources also mention the Nubri tribes (from Lower Mustang and Manaslu) and Mangyul, who probably lived in the Kyirong area.
King Amepal (1388–1447) is considered the founder of modern Mustang (the land of the Lo people). Some scholars believe that his father, Chö Kyongbum, who conquered Purang, gained the allegiance of the Gungthang clans through his military skill. Others believe that it was Amepal himself who expanded Lo's authority into Purang and Guge. Under his rule, Mustang prospered through trade between Nepal and Tibet. With the growing influence of the Sakya-pa school in Tibet, Mustang also adopted this Buddhist tradition. He is believed to have laid the foundations of Lo Manthang in 1441.
The Kingdom of Guge survived for more than 600 years until 1630, when it was overthrown under mysterious circumstances. In 1624, the Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade entered Tsaparang from India via the Mana Pass. By 1626, a church had even been built there. However, in 1630, local lamas and Ladakhis overthrew the king, fearing “contamination” from the new religion. The kingdom never recovered from this blow.
Connections with Ladakh enriched Mustang's culture until 1768, when Prithvi Narayan Shah unified Nepal. The Raja of Mustang joined the new state but continued to rule autonomously. Mustang remained isolated from the rest of Nepal, while the Kali Gandaki Valley continued to serve as the most important trade route between India and Tibet.
In ancient times, a trade route passed through Mustang along which caravans carried salt and wool to India, returning with tea, rice, and handicrafts. The rulers of Lo imposed taxes on merchants and used the revenue to build monasteries in Lo Manthang, Tsarang, and Lo Gekar, attracting Newar craftsmen from Kathmandu and Buddhist scholars from Tibet and India.
After 1950, when Tibet fell, Khampa resistance fighters used the valleys of Mustang as bases, but left the region after King Birendra declared the “Zone of Peace” initiative. The land once again became a peaceful and restricted border territory. Unfortunately, the years of Maoist insurgency and unrest shook the country. In 2008, the last King of Mustang, Jigme Palbar Bista, abdicated his authority.
The Bon religion (Bonpo) was the most ancient faith of Tibet; its followers also seek to understand eternal truth and the essence of life. Bon reveres natural phenomena such as the heavens and mountain spirits, as well as spirits associated with elemental forces like thunder. Many features and elements of Tibetan Buddhism originate from the Bon tradition. The only Bon monastery (and Sowa Rigpa medical center) in this region is located in Chhentung, near Dhorpatan, where Tibetan refugees have lived for more than 50 years.
There is evidence suggesting that Bon did not originate in Tibet, but rather in a legendary place known as Olmolungring — believed to have been located in the Tajik lands of Central Asia among peoples now known as Tajiks. The name Tazik appears in Bon texts. Southwest of Mount Kailash lie the ruins of Kyunglung Ngulkhar, the “Silver Castle of the Kyung Bird.” This site is regarded as the spiritual and ancestral homeland of Bon followers and as the center of the ancient kingdom of Zhang Zhung.
The first known Bon monastery was founded in 1072 at Yeru Wensakha, near the Tsangpo River east of Shigatse. Today it lies in ruins, but other Bon monasteries continue to exist at Menri, Yungdrung Ling, and Tradang. Most Bon monasteries in Nepal are located in Dolpo. There is also one in Kathmandu — Triten Norbutse, near the Swayambhunath Stupa. Those interested in Bon should visit this monastic complex, as living Bon culture has become increasingly rare.
The principal deity of Bon is Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, who, according to legend, descended from the heavens to Earth through Mount Kailash. Bon recognizes the “Four Supreme Lords”: Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, Shenlha Ökar, Satrig Ersang, and Sangpo Bumtri. These deities, both peaceful and wrathful, serve as objects of meditation through which practitioners contemplate different aspects of existence and attain enlightenment. This concept is also widely employed in Buddhism.
Among the other important Bon deities is Kuntu Zangpo, who resembles Samantabhadra—the Primordial Buddha (Adi-Buddha) in Buddhism. He is also regarded as an emanation of Shenlha Ökar, the “Enlightened One Free from Attachment.” He is depicted in black, alongside his white female counterpart.
Kunzang Gyalwa Düpa (Gyatso) is a mysterious figure who is essentially analogous to, and perhaps a precursor of, the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteshvara (Chenrezig in Tibet), of whom the Dalai Lama is considered an embodiment.
Welse Ngampa, with nine heads, is a wrathful protector deity representing “piercing fury”; he destroys the enemies of the Bon religion.
There is evidence suggesting that Bon did not originate in Tibet, but rather in a legendary place known as Olmolungring — believed to have been located in the Tajik lands of Central Asia among peoples now known as Tajiks. The name Tazik appears in Bon texts. Southwest of Mount Kailash lie the ruins of Kyunglung Ngulkhar, the “Silver Castle of the Kyung Bird.” This site is regarded as the spiritual and ancestral homeland of Bon followers and as the center of the ancient kingdom of Zhang Zhung.
The first known Bon monastery was founded in 1072 at Yeru Wensakha, near the Tsangpo River east of Shigatse. Today it lies in ruins, but other Bon monasteries continue to exist at Menri, Yungdrung Ling, and Tradang. Most Bon monasteries in Nepal are located in Dolpo. There is also one in Kathmandu — Triten Norbutse, near the Swayambhunath Stupa. Those interested in Bon should visit this monastic complex, as living Bon culture has become increasingly rare.
The principal deity of Bon is Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, who, according to legend, descended from the heavens to Earth through Mount Kailash. Bon recognizes the “Four Supreme Lords”: Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, Shenlha Ökar, Satrig Ersang, and Sangpo Bumtri. These deities, both peaceful and wrathful, serve as objects of meditation through which practitioners contemplate different aspects of existence and attain enlightenment. This concept is also widely employed in Buddhism.
Among the other important Bon deities is Kuntu Zangpo, who resembles Samantabhadra—the Primordial Buddha (Adi-Buddha) in Buddhism. He is also regarded as an emanation of Shenlha Ökar, the “Enlightened One Free from Attachment.” He is depicted in black, alongside his white female counterpart.
Kunzang Gyalwa Düpa (Gyatso) is a mysterious figure who is essentially analogous to, and perhaps a precursor of, the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteshvara (Chenrezig in Tibet), of whom the Dalai Lama is considered an embodiment.
Welse Ngampa, with nine heads, is a wrathful protector deity representing “piercing fury”; he destroys the enemies of the Bon religion.
Muktinath is one of the most revered sacred places in the Himalayas, where the ancient traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism meet at an altitude of approximately 3,800 meters. The name itself comes from the Sanskrit word mukti, meaning “liberation.” For millions of pilgrims, Muktinath is not merely a temple but a place where the soul can be freed from accumulated karma and move closer to enlightenment.
After the rugged trails of Upper Mustang, Muktinath appears like a mirage among rocky slopes and snow-covered peaks. Towering above the valley are the Himalayan giants Dhaulagiri and Nilgiri, while the dry mountain air is filled with a profound sense of stillness. Here, the harsh desert landscape of the Tibetan Plateau gives way to a world of sacred legends.
For Hindus, Muktinath is known as one of the 108 sacred sites of Vishnu. According to tradition, it is here that Lord Vishnu grants liberation to those who come with a pure heart. The central shrine houses a golden statue of Vishnu, and surrounding the temple are 108 stone water spouts from which icy mountain water flows continuously. Pilgrims pass beneath each stream in a ritual purification, despite the piercing cold. It is believed that this sacred bathing washes away the karma of many lifetimes.
For Buddhists, the site is known as Chumig Gyatsa — “The Hundred Sacred Waters.” According to Tibetan tradition, the great master Padmasambhava, who brought Buddhism to Tibet, meditated here. Many Buddhists regard Muktinath as a place where the enlightened feminine energy of the dakinis manifests. As a result, alongside Hindu shrines one finds Buddhist monasteries, prayer wheels, and colorful prayer flags fluttering in the mountain wind.
One of Muktinath’s most extraordinary wonders lies just below the main temple complex: Jwala Mai, the Temple of the Eternal Flame. Here, water and natural gas emerge from the earth together, creating a rare phenomenon in which a small flame burns directly above a flowing spring. For devotees, it symbolizes the unity of the elements and the manifestation of divine power; for travelers, it is one of the most remarkable natural phenomena in the Himalayas.
An important place in the spiritual geography of Muktinath is the ancient Jarkot Monastery, located in the village of the same name above the Kali Gandaki Valley. Built several centuries ago, it belongs to the Nyingma tradition, the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism and the lineage most closely associated with Padmasambhava. For generations, Jarkot has served as an important center of meditation, learning, and pilgrimage for the people of Mustang and Tibet.
According to local traditions, it was in this region that the great Guru Rinpoche—Padmasambhava—practiced meditation during his journeys through the Himalayas. It is said that the power of his spiritual realization was so great that it left traces not only in the minds of his disciples but also in the landscape itself. Around Jarkot and Muktinath, pilgrims are shown sacred footprints of Padmasambhava preserved in stone, as well as impressions in the rocks said to resemble the marks of his body. Tradition holds that these traces appeared miraculously during his meditations and blessings of the land.
For Buddhists, such imprints are not merely historical relics. They are regarded as direct evidence of the presence of an enlightened master and as powerful sources of blessing. Many pilgrims touch these sacred stones, leave offerings, and recite prayers, believing that through them they establish a living connection with the lineage of Padmasambhava.
A visit to Jarkot reveals another dimension of Muktinath—not only as a famous Hindu pilgrimage site, but also as one of the most important destinations of Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage. Amid the monastery’s ancient walls, old murals, and the endless mountain winds, one can deeply feel the continuity of tradition through which the stories of great masters continue to live in the hearts of pilgrims today.
Muktinath is the spiritual heart of pilgrimage in Mustang—a meeting place of religions, cultures, and worldviews, where for centuries people have come seeking the same things: peace, blessing, and inner freedom amid the majestic beauty of the Himalayas.
After the rugged trails of Upper Mustang, Muktinath appears like a mirage among rocky slopes and snow-covered peaks. Towering above the valley are the Himalayan giants Dhaulagiri and Nilgiri, while the dry mountain air is filled with a profound sense of stillness. Here, the harsh desert landscape of the Tibetan Plateau gives way to a world of sacred legends.
For Hindus, Muktinath is known as one of the 108 sacred sites of Vishnu. According to tradition, it is here that Lord Vishnu grants liberation to those who come with a pure heart. The central shrine houses a golden statue of Vishnu, and surrounding the temple are 108 stone water spouts from which icy mountain water flows continuously. Pilgrims pass beneath each stream in a ritual purification, despite the piercing cold. It is believed that this sacred bathing washes away the karma of many lifetimes.
For Buddhists, the site is known as Chumig Gyatsa — “The Hundred Sacred Waters.” According to Tibetan tradition, the great master Padmasambhava, who brought Buddhism to Tibet, meditated here. Many Buddhists regard Muktinath as a place where the enlightened feminine energy of the dakinis manifests. As a result, alongside Hindu shrines one finds Buddhist monasteries, prayer wheels, and colorful prayer flags fluttering in the mountain wind.
One of Muktinath’s most extraordinary wonders lies just below the main temple complex: Jwala Mai, the Temple of the Eternal Flame. Here, water and natural gas emerge from the earth together, creating a rare phenomenon in which a small flame burns directly above a flowing spring. For devotees, it symbolizes the unity of the elements and the manifestation of divine power; for travelers, it is one of the most remarkable natural phenomena in the Himalayas.
An important place in the spiritual geography of Muktinath is the ancient Jarkot Monastery, located in the village of the same name above the Kali Gandaki Valley. Built several centuries ago, it belongs to the Nyingma tradition, the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism and the lineage most closely associated with Padmasambhava. For generations, Jarkot has served as an important center of meditation, learning, and pilgrimage for the people of Mustang and Tibet.
According to local traditions, it was in this region that the great Guru Rinpoche—Padmasambhava—practiced meditation during his journeys through the Himalayas. It is said that the power of his spiritual realization was so great that it left traces not only in the minds of his disciples but also in the landscape itself. Around Jarkot and Muktinath, pilgrims are shown sacred footprints of Padmasambhava preserved in stone, as well as impressions in the rocks said to resemble the marks of his body. Tradition holds that these traces appeared miraculously during his meditations and blessings of the land.
For Buddhists, such imprints are not merely historical relics. They are regarded as direct evidence of the presence of an enlightened master and as powerful sources of blessing. Many pilgrims touch these sacred stones, leave offerings, and recite prayers, believing that through them they establish a living connection with the lineage of Padmasambhava.
A visit to Jarkot reveals another dimension of Muktinath—not only as a famous Hindu pilgrimage site, but also as one of the most important destinations of Tibetan Buddhist pilgrimage. Amid the monastery’s ancient walls, old murals, and the endless mountain winds, one can deeply feel the continuity of tradition through which the stories of great masters continue to live in the hearts of pilgrims today.
Muktinath is the spiritual heart of pilgrimage in Mustang—a meeting place of religions, cultures, and worldviews, where for centuries people have come seeking the same things: peace, blessing, and inner freedom amid the majestic beauty of the Himalayas.
The anticipation of reaching the legendary walled city of Lo Manthang—the highlight of the entire trek for most travelers—makes this day truly special and filled with long-awaited rewards.
The route to Lo Manthang opens up magnificent views of the Himalayas to the south, including Annapurna I, Nilgiri, Tilicho, and the Damodar–Bhrikuti peaks to the southeast.
About halfway from Tsarang, the trail reaches the picturesque, secluded, and frequently photographed Sungda Chorten. Then, at last, the panorama from the pass dramatically reveals the splendor of Lo Manthang below. The city appears almost like a painting brought to life—a sight that inspires genuine awe.
The walled city continues to make a lasting impression, with its whitewashed houses, red monasteries, and royal palace at the center. From this viewpoint, several other landmarks can also be seen: Tingkhar and Namgyal Gompa, a gray-red monastery perched on a rocky outcrop. Higher up on the surrounding hills stand the ruins of Khacho Dzong and Khartsun Dzong.
To the east, the Mustang Khola winds its way through a landscape of multicolored cliffs and rock formations. To the northwest rises the peak of Mansail, its snow-covered summit standing in striking contrast to the rugged mountains below.
The route to Lo Manthang opens up magnificent views of the Himalayas to the south, including Annapurna I, Nilgiri, Tilicho, and the Damodar–Bhrikuti peaks to the southeast.
About halfway from Tsarang, the trail reaches the picturesque, secluded, and frequently photographed Sungda Chorten. Then, at last, the panorama from the pass dramatically reveals the splendor of Lo Manthang below. The city appears almost like a painting brought to life—a sight that inspires genuine awe.
The walled city continues to make a lasting impression, with its whitewashed houses, red monasteries, and royal palace at the center. From this viewpoint, several other landmarks can also be seen: Tingkhar and Namgyal Gompa, a gray-red monastery perched on a rocky outcrop. Higher up on the surrounding hills stand the ruins of Khacho Dzong and Khartsun Dzong.
To the east, the Mustang Khola winds its way through a landscape of multicolored cliffs and rock formations. To the northwest rises the peak of Mansail, its snow-covered summit standing in striking contrast to the rugged mountains below.
For centuries, the Tibetan-influenced village of Kagbeni in Mustang served as a place of passage. Caravans stopped here along what was once the principal trade route between Tibet and India, either after crossing the arid Tibetan Plateau or before descending into the Kali Gandaki Valley.
Kagbeni is also known as the gateway to Upper Mustang, as it marks the furthest point travelers can reach without obtaining a special Mustang permit. Consequently, part—and indeed most—of Kagbeni lies within Lower Mustang, although beyond the police checkpoint begins the territory of Upper Mustang.
Kagbeni is also known as the gateway to Upper Mustang, as it marks the furthest point travelers can reach without obtaining a special Mustang permit. Consequently, part—and indeed most—of Kagbeni lies within Lower Mustang, although beyond the police checkpoint begins the territory of Upper Mustang.
The little-known Mentsi Lhakang Cave is known as the “Temple of Sacred Medicines.” Its name is associated with the famous Braga Monastery near Manang, from which a persecuted clan is believed to have migrated into the remote Narsing Valley.
Scholars, however, connect the sanctuary with the lama Mentsun Yonton, a revered sage associated with the masters of the Kagyupa tradition, including Atisha, Marpa, and Milarepa.
There may also be a connection with the great translator Rinchen Zangpo, one of the key figures of the 11th-century Buddhist renaissance linked to the Kingdom of Guge. The presence of Vairocana—the principal iconographic figure within the cave—supports this theory.
Also represented are the principal Dhyani Buddhas: Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.
Particular attention should be given to the image of the wrathful deity Hayagriva (“Horse-Necked One”), as well as Garuda, the bird-faced divine being.
According to scholars, the cave's wall paintings date back to the 12th century.
Scholars, however, connect the sanctuary with the lama Mentsun Yonton, a revered sage associated with the masters of the Kagyupa tradition, including Atisha, Marpa, and Milarepa.
There may also be a connection with the great translator Rinchen Zangpo, one of the key figures of the 11th-century Buddhist renaissance linked to the Kingdom of Guge. The presence of Vairocana—the principal iconographic figure within the cave—supports this theory.
Also represented are the principal Dhyani Buddhas: Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.
Particular attention should be given to the image of the wrathful deity Hayagriva (“Horse-Necked One”), as well as Garuda, the bird-faced divine being.
According to scholars, the cave's wall paintings date back to the 12th century.
Located slightly off the main route, Tetang may seem like an unusual choice for a first overnight stop, but this remarkable village is one of the most exciting, visually striking, beautifully situated, and historically significant places in all of Upper Mustang. We would even say that it should never be omitted from an itinerary. Even if your route does not include the other eastern trails of Mustang, Tetang should certainly not be missed. It is entirely possible to continue from Tetang to Samar the following day.
If any place truly deserves UNESCO World Heritage status, it is undoubtedly Tetang. Preserving this unique settlement of Upper Mustang should be a priority.
Tetang consists of two distinct sections and appears as medieval as one could possibly imagine. A deep gorge separates the two halves of the village, while the ancient monastery occupies the eastern side.
The eastern section is a maze of dark alleyways and high-walled houses, most of which are now abandoned.
The western section remains inhabited and is equally fascinating, with its network of narrow lanes, shadowy corners, hidden passages, mysterious doorways, and newly built high-walled homes. During the daytime, local residents—primarily the elderly and the youngest members of the community—gather in the small central square. Various mani walls, small chortens, and prayer walls surround the settlement.
Tetang Gompa
Originally a Nyingmapa monastery, the shrine of Tetang now belongs to the Sakyapa tradition, which has dominated Upper Mustang since the visits of Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo in the 15th century.
This monastery is one of the oldest in Mustang and contains several remarkable treasures.
Immediately inside the entrance stand two preserved snow leopards. On the left wall is an extraordinary painting of a flying tiger in chains—the traditional companion of Guru Rinpoche. Interestingly, the icon beside it appears to have a more Mongolian artistic style, perhaps added later by Sakya monks.
Unusually, the guardian deities are positioned inside the temple on the left wall, together with the “Friends in Harmony,” including the elephant. Four of the auspicious symbols are also depicted on the left side, along with a number of sacred books and texts.
Behind a pane of cloudy glass stands the central image of Guru Rinpoche, flanked by Buddha Shakyamuni on the left and Manjushri on the right.
Towering above the valley is a gigantic wall of brilliant yellow rock formations resembling turrets and organ pipes.
Approximately one hour upstream from the village along the Narsing Khola lies an ancient salt mine. Salt is collected where mineral-rich water emerges from two main depressions or cave-like openings in the rock.
If any place truly deserves UNESCO World Heritage status, it is undoubtedly Tetang. Preserving this unique settlement of Upper Mustang should be a priority.
Tetang consists of two distinct sections and appears as medieval as one could possibly imagine. A deep gorge separates the two halves of the village, while the ancient monastery occupies the eastern side.
The eastern section is a maze of dark alleyways and high-walled houses, most of which are now abandoned.
The western section remains inhabited and is equally fascinating, with its network of narrow lanes, shadowy corners, hidden passages, mysterious doorways, and newly built high-walled homes. During the daytime, local residents—primarily the elderly and the youngest members of the community—gather in the small central square. Various mani walls, small chortens, and prayer walls surround the settlement.
Tetang Gompa
Originally a Nyingmapa monastery, the shrine of Tetang now belongs to the Sakyapa tradition, which has dominated Upper Mustang since the visits of Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo in the 15th century.
This monastery is one of the oldest in Mustang and contains several remarkable treasures.
Immediately inside the entrance stand two preserved snow leopards. On the left wall is an extraordinary painting of a flying tiger in chains—the traditional companion of Guru Rinpoche. Interestingly, the icon beside it appears to have a more Mongolian artistic style, perhaps added later by Sakya monks.
Unusually, the guardian deities are positioned inside the temple on the left wall, together with the “Friends in Harmony,” including the elephant. Four of the auspicious symbols are also depicted on the left side, along with a number of sacred books and texts.
Behind a pane of cloudy glass stands the central image of Guru Rinpoche, flanked by Buddha Shakyamuni on the left and Manjushri on the right.
Towering above the valley is a gigantic wall of brilliant yellow rock formations resembling turrets and organ pipes.
Approximately one hour upstream from the village along the Narsing Khola lies an ancient salt mine. Salt is collected where mineral-rich water emerges from two main depressions or cave-like openings in the rock.
The 8th-century Ranchung Chungsi Cave in Upper Mustang is a remarkable embodiment of Buddhist cultural heritage. It is located on the route to Lo Manthang, between the villages of Samar and Syangboche. The cave is often compared to the sacred Maratika Cave in Halesi, Khotang, in eastern Nepal.
Chungsi Cave holds significance for both Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims. Hindus believe that Lord Shiva meditated here during his journey to Mount Kailash, the most sacred mountain and his divine abode. In Buddhism, the cave is revered as a meditation site of Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava), who is said to have practiced here while pursuing a demon from Tibet.
Among the many caves of the Mustang region, Ranchung Chungsi stands out as one of the naturally formed “sky caves.” It attracts thousands of visitors from around the world and has become one of the most beloved destinations for travelers and trekkers exploring Upper Mustang. Today, it is considered an essential stop on any journey through the region.
The surroundings of Chungsi Cave are particularly dramatic, with striking sandstone canyons and unusual rock formations creating a powerful atmosphere. It is common to see pilgrims making offerings, burning incense, and hanging prayer flags around the site. Local residents from Samar, Syangboche, Ghami, Tsarang, and Lo Manthang also regularly make pilgrimages here to pray and meditate.
A local belief holds that stones from the cave can help relieve back pain. In many parts of Upper Mustang, deposits of Himalayan pink salt can also be found.
According to tradition, Chungsi Cave was established as a sacred site in the 8th century. It is believed that Guru Rinpoche meditated here while pursuing a demon from Samye Monastery in Tibet, transforming the cave into one of the region’s most revered pilgrimage destinations.
Chungsi Cave holds significance for both Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims. Hindus believe that Lord Shiva meditated here during his journey to Mount Kailash, the most sacred mountain and his divine abode. In Buddhism, the cave is revered as a meditation site of Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava), who is said to have practiced here while pursuing a demon from Tibet.
Among the many caves of the Mustang region, Ranchung Chungsi stands out as one of the naturally formed “sky caves.” It attracts thousands of visitors from around the world and has become one of the most beloved destinations for travelers and trekkers exploring Upper Mustang. Today, it is considered an essential stop on any journey through the region.
The surroundings of Chungsi Cave are particularly dramatic, with striking sandstone canyons and unusual rock formations creating a powerful atmosphere. It is common to see pilgrims making offerings, burning incense, and hanging prayer flags around the site. Local residents from Samar, Syangboche, Ghami, Tsarang, and Lo Manthang also regularly make pilgrimages here to pray and meditate.
A local belief holds that stones from the cave can help relieve back pain. In many parts of Upper Mustang, deposits of Himalayan pink salt can also be found.
According to tradition, Chungsi Cave was established as a sacred site in the 8th century. It is believed that Guru Rinpoche meditated here while pursuing a demon from Samye Monastery in Tibet, transforming the cave into one of the region’s most revered pilgrimage destinations.
Known as Tashi Choling, the monastery was founded in the 15th century by Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo, one of the great Buddhist masters of his time. It belongs to the Sakya tradition of the Ngor lineage.
The main temple contains images of the founder as well as Mahakala, Buddha Shakyamuni, Chenrezig, and other less commonly depicted deities, including Chakrasamvara (Heruka) and Hevajra. Particular attention should also be given to the Five Dhyani Buddhas.
A smaller building located higher up the hillside serves as the Gonkhang, a shrine traditionally dedicated to protector deities. Such sanctuaries, found throughout the Buddhist highlands, are often closed to visitors. Here, however, the principal protectors appear to be Mahakala and Gonpo, figures associated with Shiva in Nepalese tradition.
Just before reaching the summit of Nyi La (also known as Nyika La) Pass at an elevation of 4,010 meters, travelers encounter a stone painted with a smiling face. It is said to joyfully welcome those who have reached the top of the pass. Others jokingly suggest that it is quietly laughing at how much money people have paid for the privilege of entering Upper Mustang—only to find themselves completely exhausted by the journey.
The main temple contains images of the founder as well as Mahakala, Buddha Shakyamuni, Chenrezig, and other less commonly depicted deities, including Chakrasamvara (Heruka) and Hevajra. Particular attention should also be given to the Five Dhyani Buddhas.
A smaller building located higher up the hillside serves as the Gonkhang, a shrine traditionally dedicated to protector deities. Such sanctuaries, found throughout the Buddhist highlands, are often closed to visitors. Here, however, the principal protectors appear to be Mahakala and Gonpo, figures associated with Shiva in Nepalese tradition.
Just before reaching the summit of Nyi La (also known as Nyika La) Pass at an elevation of 4,010 meters, travelers encounter a stone painted with a smiling face. It is said to joyfully welcome those who have reached the top of the pass. Others jokingly suggest that it is quietly laughing at how much money people have paid for the privilege of entering Upper Mustang—only to find themselves completely exhausted by the journey.
Tsarang possesses an exotic, ancient atmosphere that reflects the unique cultural heritage of Mustang and should not be missed.
To the east of Tsarang and the Kali Gandaki River (Mustang Khola) lies the village of Dri. Beyond Dri are the spectacular caves of Yara and the secluded cave sanctuary of Luri, which lead toward the sacred lake of Damodar Kund.
The dramatically situated Thubten Shedrup Dhargyeling Monastery is renowned for its detailed murals and mandalas. The monastery belongs to the Ngor Sakya-pa tradition and is said to have been founded in the 16th century. Its principal image is Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Flanking him are Buddha Shakyamuni and Vajradhara. The monastery also houses a revered wooden statue of Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara), brought from Lhasa. Visitors can also see depictions of the Thousand Buddhas and the Buddhas of the Four Directions: Vairocana, Amitabha, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, and Amoghasiddhi.
Samdrup Gedphel Palace was once the residence of the kings of Mustang and is now used as a museum displaying various historical artifacts. Among its most remarkable treasures are a bronze statue of Maitreya and a rare wooden image of the little-known deity Phagpa Lokeshvara, associated with Songtsen Gampo, the recognized founder of the Tibetan state.
According to tradition, Songtsen Gampo sought sandalwood trees to create such sacred images in order to subdue harmful forces. These images were believed to have been installed in 108 temples throughout the Himalayas and Tibet.
One of Mustang’s kings, Agon Zangpo, is also believed to be represented among the exhibits. The renowned Japanese monk Ekai Kawaguchi, who spent some time living in Tukuche, also stayed in Tsarang before secretly entering Tibet, where he remained for three years.
To the east of Tsarang and the Kali Gandaki River (Mustang Khola) lies the village of Dri. Beyond Dri are the spectacular caves of Yara and the secluded cave sanctuary of Luri, which lead toward the sacred lake of Damodar Kund.
The dramatically situated Thubten Shedrup Dhargyeling Monastery is renowned for its detailed murals and mandalas. The monastery belongs to the Ngor Sakya-pa tradition and is said to have been founded in the 16th century. Its principal image is Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Flanking him are Buddha Shakyamuni and Vajradhara. The monastery also houses a revered wooden statue of Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara), brought from Lhasa. Visitors can also see depictions of the Thousand Buddhas and the Buddhas of the Four Directions: Vairocana, Amitabha, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, and Amoghasiddhi.
Samdrup Gedphel Palace was once the residence of the kings of Mustang and is now used as a museum displaying various historical artifacts. Among its most remarkable treasures are a bronze statue of Maitreya and a rare wooden image of the little-known deity Phagpa Lokeshvara, associated with Songtsen Gampo, the recognized founder of the Tibetan state.
According to tradition, Songtsen Gampo sought sandalwood trees to create such sacred images in order to subdue harmful forces. These images were believed to have been installed in 108 temples throughout the Himalayas and Tibet.
One of Mustang’s kings, Agon Zangpo, is also believed to be represented among the exhibits. The renowned Japanese monk Ekai Kawaguchi, who spent some time living in Tukuche, also stayed in Tsarang before secretly entering Tibet, where he remained for three years.
One of the most sacred places in Upper Mustang is Lo Gekar, also known as Ghar Gompa. A truly sacred site, a place of power, where the spirit and strength of the tradition can be felt directly.
Ghar Gompa is considered the oldest monastery in Mustang, traditionally dating back to the 8th century. Its most important historical connection is with Guru Rinpoche, the great master of the Nyingma tradition. Numerous images of him can be found throughout the monastery.
Ghar Gompa maintains deep spiritual ties with Samye Monastery in Tibet, which is also closely associated with Guru Rinpoche. According to legend, when Samye Monastery was being built, everything constructed during the day was destroyed by demons during the night. The lamas received a vision that only Guru Rinpoche could resolve the problem, and so they invited him to Tibet.
On his journey, Guru Rinpoche subdued the demons that stood in his way. Upon arriving, he declared that Samye could not be successfully completed until a monastery was first established at the site of present-day Lo Gekar.
He returned to Mustang and defeated a powerful demon whose blood is said to have stained the red cliffs of Drakmar, while its intestines became the long mani wall that still stretches across the valley. Lo Gekar was then built according to Guru Rinpoche's instructions, and only afterward was the construction of Samye completed without further obstacles.
The monastery is surrounded by long rows of prayer wheels, including a separate chamber containing large prayer wheels. Standing before the main assembly hall are the Four Lokapalas, the Guardian Kings of the Directions, together with the sage Mi Tsering.
Inside the entrance chamber are paintings of the protector deities:
The left wall depicts the Twenty-One Taras and the Eight Medicine Buddhas.
Before entering the next chamber, visitors encounter representations of the Eighty Mahasiddhas, the enlightened masters of the tantric tradition.
The atmosphere becomes even more powerful in the inner sanctuary.
In the left corner appears an image of White Tara naturally formed within the rock itself. Along the left wall are three of the Eight Manifestations of Guru Rinpoche:
On either side are his two principal consorts:
Among the most famous figures said to have visited Ghar Gompa are:
It is further believed that the statue of Guru Rinpoche housed within the monastery was created by the master himself and that some of the oldest Buddhist relics in the region are sealed within it.
For many pilgrims, Ghar Gompa is not simply an ancient monastery—it is one of the living spiritual hearts of Mustang, where the presence of Guru Rinpoche is still felt with remarkable immediacy.
Ghar Gompa is considered the oldest monastery in Mustang, traditionally dating back to the 8th century. Its most important historical connection is with Guru Rinpoche, the great master of the Nyingma tradition. Numerous images of him can be found throughout the monastery.
Ghar Gompa maintains deep spiritual ties with Samye Monastery in Tibet, which is also closely associated with Guru Rinpoche. According to legend, when Samye Monastery was being built, everything constructed during the day was destroyed by demons during the night. The lamas received a vision that only Guru Rinpoche could resolve the problem, and so they invited him to Tibet.
On his journey, Guru Rinpoche subdued the demons that stood in his way. Upon arriving, he declared that Samye could not be successfully completed until a monastery was first established at the site of present-day Lo Gekar.
He returned to Mustang and defeated a powerful demon whose blood is said to have stained the red cliffs of Drakmar, while its intestines became the long mani wall that still stretches across the valley. Lo Gekar was then built according to Guru Rinpoche's instructions, and only afterward was the construction of Samye completed without further obstacles.
The monastery is surrounded by long rows of prayer wheels, including a separate chamber containing large prayer wheels. Standing before the main assembly hall are the Four Lokapalas, the Guardian Kings of the Directions, together with the sage Mi Tsering.
Inside the entrance chamber are paintings of the protector deities:
- Hayagriva (Tamdrin) on the left
- Vajrapani in the center
- Mahakala on the right
The left wall depicts the Twenty-One Taras and the Eight Medicine Buddhas.
Before entering the next chamber, visitors encounter representations of the Eighty Mahasiddhas, the enlightened masters of the tantric tradition.
The atmosphere becomes even more powerful in the inner sanctuary.
In the left corner appears an image of White Tara naturally formed within the rock itself. Along the left wall are three of the Eight Manifestations of Guru Rinpoche:
- Pema Gyalpo
- Loden Chokse
- Dorje Drollo
On either side are his two principal consorts:
- Mandarava on the left
- Yeshe Tsogyal on the right
- Padma Sambhava
- Padma Jigme Jungne, depicted in red
- Shakya Senge
- Nyima Ozer
- Sangye Dradok
Among the most famous figures said to have visited Ghar Gompa are:
- Milarepa, the great Tibetan yogi, poet, and hermit
- Rinchen Zangpo, the celebrated 11th-century translator who is credited with founding 108 monasteries
It is further believed that the statue of Guru Rinpoche housed within the monastery was created by the master himself and that some of the oldest Buddhist relics in the region are sealed within it.
For many pilgrims, Ghar Gompa is not simply an ancient monastery—it is one of the living spiritual hearts of Mustang, where the presence of Guru Rinpoche is still felt with remarkable immediacy.
The anticipation of reaching the legendary walled city of Lo Manthang—for most travelers the highlight of the entire trek—makes this day truly special and filled with long-awaited rewards.
The road to Lo Manthang reveals a magnificent panorama of the Himalayas to the south: Annapurna I, Nilgiri, Tilicho, as well as the Damodar–Bhrikuti peaks to the southeast.
Halfway from Tsarang, the trail leads to the picturesque, secluded, and frequently photographed Sungda Chorten. And finally—the panorama that opens from the pass solemnly and unexpectedly reveals the splendor of Lo Manthang below: the city seems to have stepped out of a painter’s canvas—a sight that inspires genuine admiration.
The walled city still leaves an indelible impression—white houses, red monasteries, and the palace at its center. From this point, other landmarks are also visible: Tinggar (Tinkhar) and Namgyal Gompa—the gray-red structure perched on a rocky outcrop. On the hills above rise the ruins of Khacho Dzong and Khartsun Dzong. To the east, amid a sea of multicolored rocks, flows the Mustang Khola River. To the northwest stands Mansail Peak—its snow-white summit contrasting with the rugged mountains below.
The road to Lo Manthang reveals a magnificent panorama of the Himalayas to the south: Annapurna I, Nilgiri, Tilicho, as well as the Damodar–Bhrikuti peaks to the southeast.
Halfway from Tsarang, the trail leads to the picturesque, secluded, and frequently photographed Sungda Chorten. And finally—the panorama that opens from the pass solemnly and unexpectedly reveals the splendor of Lo Manthang below: the city seems to have stepped out of a painter’s canvas—a sight that inspires genuine admiration.
The walled city still leaves an indelible impression—white houses, red monasteries, and the palace at its center. From this point, other landmarks are also visible: Tinggar (Tinkhar) and Namgyal Gompa—the gray-red structure perched on a rocky outcrop. On the hills above rise the ruins of Khacho Dzong and Khartsun Dzong. To the east, amid a sea of multicolored rocks, flows the Mustang Khola River. To the northwest stands Mansail Peak—its snow-white summit contrasting with the rugged mountains below.
The oldest monastery—the three-story, red-walled Jampa (Champa) Gompa—is dedicated to Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future. This Sakya school structure was consecrated in 1448 by Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo and King Agon Zangpo. The golden clay statue of Maitreya was completed in 1663. The northern wall was destroyed by an earthquake 200 years ago and partially rebuilt. The monastery is renowned for its mandalas, originally created by Newari artists during the reign of King Kunga Zangpo and now undergoing restoration. Many are still covered with centuries of soot and grime from butter lamps. It also houses a unique Thousand Buddhas mandala and five Buddhas in the Pala artistic style, executed with extraordinary detail. The Lokapalas are painted on the inner wall due to the lack of space outside. New paintings are not permitted here.
Thubchen Lhakhang (Mahamuni) Monastery of the Sakya school was founded in 1468 during the reign of King Tsangchen Trashigon. It contains a magnificent image of the fifth Dhyani Buddha, Vairocana, facing east near the entrance. Prominent images include Guru Rinpoche, Amitayus, White Tara, Vajradhara, and the bird-like being Kirtimukha. The principal icon is Mahamuni (Shakyamuni) in copper, flanked by Chenrezig in the form of Shadakshari Lokeshvara and Manjushri in clay. The five Dhyani Buddhas are also depicted here, with Ratnasambhava on the left wall being particularly striking. The four Lokapalas, unusually, are represented as statues outside the main hall. Restoration began in 1999 with support from the American Himalayan Foundation. New paintings are still being created beneath the feet of the principal deities.
Ngonga Choede Gompa (also known as Dragkar Thegchen Ling) was founded by King Tsewang Phuntsog Tsugyen Norbu. The monastery was likely originally established during the time of Ampal, but its present form began in 1710. It houses a silver image of Tara and probably an enclosed Mahakala. Some deities were moved here from Choprang, including Vajrakilaya (a fierce blue deity wearing a crown of skulls and holding outstretched arms, battling obstacles on the path of compassion) after a fire.
Choprang Monastery of the Sakya school is the newest building and is effectively part of Choede Monastery. Near the monasteries is a museum founded in 2008 by the Choede monastic community. It contains artifacts, masks, texts on wooden tablets, and 3,000-year-old Bon religious texts from the caves of Mardzong. A new building is also under construction. All of these attractions are located in a corner of the city known for its fierce guard dogs.
Thubchen Lhakhang (Mahamuni) Monastery of the Sakya school was founded in 1468 during the reign of King Tsangchen Trashigon. It contains a magnificent image of the fifth Dhyani Buddha, Vairocana, facing east near the entrance. Prominent images include Guru Rinpoche, Amitayus, White Tara, Vajradhara, and the bird-like being Kirtimukha. The principal icon is Mahamuni (Shakyamuni) in copper, flanked by Chenrezig in the form of Shadakshari Lokeshvara and Manjushri in clay. The five Dhyani Buddhas are also depicted here, with Ratnasambhava on the left wall being particularly striking. The four Lokapalas, unusually, are represented as statues outside the main hall. Restoration began in 1999 with support from the American Himalayan Foundation. New paintings are still being created beneath the feet of the principal deities.
Ngonga Choede Gompa (also known as Dragkar Thegchen Ling) was founded by King Tsewang Phuntsog Tsugyen Norbu. The monastery was likely originally established during the time of Ampal, but its present form began in 1710. It houses a silver image of Tara and probably an enclosed Mahakala. Some deities were moved here from Choprang, including Vajrakilaya (a fierce blue deity wearing a crown of skulls and holding outstretched arms, battling obstacles on the path of compassion) after a fire.
Choprang Monastery of the Sakya school is the newest building and is effectively part of Choede Monastery. Near the monasteries is a museum founded in 2008 by the Choede monastic community. It contains artifacts, masks, texts on wooden tablets, and 3,000-year-old Bon religious texts from the caves of Mardzong. A new building is also under construction. All of these attractions are located in a corner of the city known for its fierce guard dogs.
And there is one more unique cave monastery of the Kingdom of Lo—Luri Gompa. Carved into a sheer cliff of natural sandstone, it stands high above the ground. The monastery can only be reached on foot, and for local people this is considered a great blessing. Luri Gompa was established by the ancient Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism more than 900 years ago and is one of the nine principal sacred sites of Mustang. The inner hall contains unique murals of Mahasiddhas—saints who attained enlightenment. Further on, in the next chamber, as your eyes adjust to the darkness, you will be able to see the white body of the Luri Chorten—a small stupa beneath an ornate canopy, adorned with four remarkable murals. It is believed that this monastery was built as early as the 14th century.
Luri Gompa is one of the most famous monasteries in Mustang. The monastery is situated on a ledge at least one hundred meters above the ground, within one of the many natural sandstone formations resembling columns. A winding trail climbs from the valley floor to a single entrance door leading into two adjoining chambers. The outer chamber contains a shrine, while the inner chamber—the main treasure of Luri Gompa—is beautifully decorated with a series of paintings depicting Indian Mahasiddhas, saints who are said to have attained siddhi, or extraordinary powers, through meditation. No documents relating to this mysterious gompa or monastery have been found, but the wall paintings appear to have been created in the 14th century or even earlier.
The cave monastery of Luri Gompa preserves the last surviving cave murals, and the mystery of how its many tunnels and chambers were created remains unsolved to this day. In fact, this place stands as evidence of a spiritual presence on Earth. Even if you are an atheist, once you find yourself here, you will inevitably feel a powerful and divine energy.
Luri Gompa is one of the most famous monasteries in Mustang. The monastery is situated on a ledge at least one hundred meters above the ground, within one of the many natural sandstone formations resembling columns. A winding trail climbs from the valley floor to a single entrance door leading into two adjoining chambers. The outer chamber contains a shrine, while the inner chamber—the main treasure of Luri Gompa—is beautifully decorated with a series of paintings depicting Indian Mahasiddhas, saints who are said to have attained siddhi, or extraordinary powers, through meditation. No documents relating to this mysterious gompa or monastery have been found, but the wall paintings appear to have been created in the 14th century or even earlier.
The cave monastery of Luri Gompa preserves the last surviving cave murals, and the mystery of how its many tunnels and chambers were created remains unsolved to this day. In fact, this place stands as evidence of a spiritual presence on Earth. Even if you are an atheist, once you find yourself here, you will inevitably feel a powerful and divine energy.
All this and much more awaits you on a journey through the mysterious Kingdom of Mustang…